Henry VIII rules England after Catherine of Aragon’s death; Anne Boleyn remains queen, though the king still lacks a legitimate male heir and presses his break with Rome. Francis I of France invades Savoy and contests Milan with Charles V, whose vast Habsburg empire stretches from Spain through the Netherlands, Austria, and Italy while his brother Ferdinand holds Bohemia and claims Hungary. John III of Portugal expands his overseas empire and installs the Inquisition. James V of Scotland leans on the French alliance and seeks a bride. Christian III of Denmark-Norway and Gustav Vasa of Sweden lock in Lutheran reform and secure their thrones after civil strife. Sigismund I and Bona Sforza preside over a Renaissance Poland-Lithuania. Hungary remains split between Habsburg and Zápolya claims under Ottoman shadow. Suleiman the Magnificent stands at the height of Ottoman power, now allied with France against the Habsburgs.